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Contrastive study between Chinese and English in Grammar 1. What is grammar It refers to a description of the structure of a language and the way in which linguistic units such as words and phrases are combined to produce sentences in a language. It consists of two branches: morphology and syntax . Morphology comprises two parts: inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology is concerned with morphological variations that result from grammatical needs. Derivational morphology is concerned with morphological variations a means of word-building. 2.Morphological contrastive study Contrastive analysis on the level of inflectional morphology is largely a matter of constrasting the devices different languages employ to transmit grammatical meanings. These devices are usually known as “grammatical categories”， which include aspect， tense， case， gender， mood， person， class of word(parts of speech) 1) Aspect in English and Chinese In English the aspectual meaning is realized by resorting to auxiliary words and verb conjugation. Eg. They are watching TV now.(progressive) He has finished his homework. (perfect) While in Chinese， there are some particles like 著、正在、了、過，used to indicate aspect. Eg. 1. progressive aspect 他正等著呢，快點(diǎn)。 她正在看電視。 2. perfect aspect 我寫完作業(yè)了。 我去過倫敦，還去過紐約。 2）tense in English and Chinese In English， tenses， like aspect， are realized by resorting to auxiliary words and verb conjugation. When aspects combine with tense， eg. When progressive combines with tense， the past progressive， present progressive and future progressive result. As Chinese does not have the grammatical category of tense， the temporal notions indicated by English tenses are lexicalized in Chinese. The lexical words used are mainly adverbs like 那時，昨天，上周，去年，etc.， sometimes together with 曾經(jīng)，過etc. to indicate the past tense; 明天，下周，明年，要etc. to indicate future tense; 已經(jīng)，一直etc. to signal perfect tense. For example: (1) 那時他正要鎖門。 He was going to lock the door then. （2）她昨天買了一輛車。 She bought the car yesterday. （3）John曾經(jīng)因違章停車被罰過100美元。 John was once fined 100 dollars for misplacing his car. （4）我要去買東西。 I’m going to go shopping. （5）他明早會演奏這支曲子。 He will be playing the tone tomorrow morning. （6）他已經(jīng)得了三次一等獎。 He has already won the first prize for three times. （7）五歲以來，他一直在學(xué)鋼琴。 He has been learning piano since she was five. 3. Case in English and Chinese In English， there are nominative case like I， we， you， he， they， objective case like me， us， you， her， him， and possessive case like my， our， your， her， his and their and nominal pronoun like mine， ours， yours， hers， his， and theirs. While in Chinese， there is no such inflection of case pronoun. It is the word order that determines if a noun or noun phrases is the nominative case or the objective case or possessive case. Eg.: She likes reading. 她喜歡讀書 Everybody likes her. 人人都喜歡她。 this is her book. 這是她的書。 The difference often presents problems for beginners， sometimes even the intermediate learners choose the wrong forms which result in mistakes in their writing or speaking. Eg. Mary doesn’t like *he， so do *me (him， I); to my surprise， he has finished a *day work.(a day’s) 4. Gender in English and Chinese Generally speaking， both English and Chinese don’t have word inflections indicating particular masculine or feminine of a thing. However， a few English words can be used as a specific reference to a masculine or a feminine. Eg. Actor actress Waiter waitress Host hostess Hero heroine While in Chinese， there is no such suffix to denote gender. Often the prefix ‘男’or ‘女’ is added to show masculine or feminine. 5. Mood in English and Chinese Mood in English 1) subjunctive mood suggesting doubt， condition， or a situation contrary to the fact is realized by resorting to auxiliaries with the conjugation of verbs in sentences. Eg. A. if I were you， I would apply for the job. B. If I had finished my homework earlier， I would have gone with you to the theatre. C. it’s important (necessary， strange， impossible) that sb. should do sth. D. he suggests (orders， recommends， requires， insists) that sb. should do sth. E. I wish that he could come. 2) mood of advice， permission， necessity， guessing， possibility， prediction， request， condition and oblige is expressed by using the modal verbs like may， might， can， could， should， would， must， ought to…….eg. A. The hunters have been lost for days. They could starve! B. May I have a look at your pictures? C. When going by airplane， you should arrive at the airport at least one hour earlier. D. A man landed on Mars? You must be joking. That can’t be true. Imperative mood often indicates commands. Eg. Look out when crossing the street. Read out loud please. 2. Mood in Chinese In Chinese， emotional particles like “啦”，”吧”， “呀”， “啊”， “嘛”， “呢”， “哪”plus intonation are used to express different kinds of mood. 1）啦 他早回來了！ He came back much earlier today. 他不來啦？ He didn’t come， did he? 2）吧 你再想想吧！ Please think it over! 他恐怕不知道真相吧！ I’m afraid he doesn’t know the truth. 信還沒寫完吧？ You haven’t finished the letter， have you? 3）呀 快說呀！ Please tell us， be quick! 這樣做才對呀！ This is the exact way to do things. 哎呀！下雨啦。 Oh! It’s raining. 誰呀？ Who is it? 4）啊 多美的花啊！ How beautiful these flowers are! 你可要細(xì)心啊！ be careful! 5）嘛 不能怕難嘛。 Don’t be afraid of the difficulties， OK? 我不想去嘛。 I really don’t want to go， shall I not go? 6）唄 你不會開車就學(xué)唄。 You can’t drive? Well， learn to. 7）呢 作業(yè)還沒完成呢。 I haven’t finished my homework yet. 你不信才怪呢。 I’m sure you believe it. 你怎么能這么粗心呢？ How can you be so careless? 8）哪 加油干哪！ Speed up!/Come on! Emotional particles， is a unique characteristics of Chinese language which is absent in English， so in English language， intonation is often employed to express such mood. Besides emotional particles， mood of advice， permission， necessity， guessing， possibility， prediction， request， condition and oblige is also expressed by using the modal verbs like 可以，可能，必須，應(yīng)該 etc.. Eg. 1) 她可能會生氣。(guessing) She must be very angry. 2）你應(yīng)該盡早完成作業(yè)。(request) You should finish your homework as soon as possible. 3）你可以打開窗子。(permission) You can open the window now. 4）你必須對此負(fù)責(zé)。(reproaching) You must be responsible for it. Person in English and Chinese English and Chinese are almost the same in this aspect except that if a third person singular used as subject in English， the main verb should conjugate to agree with it， which is not the case in Chinese. For example: They like playing basketball. 他們喜歡打籃球。 He likes playing basketball. 他喜歡打籃球。 Part of speech in English and Chinese To divide words into classes is a method of analyzing language. Words are grouped as different classes(usu. called parts of speech) according to their properties and the way they function in sentences. Words can be divided into notion words (full words/lexical words) and form words (function words/ structural words/empty words/grammatical words) in both English and Chinese. Notion words include nouns， pronouns， adjectives， numerals， verbs， adverbs， while functional words include prepositions， conjunctions， interjections and auxiliary words. The difference here is that there is no article in Chinese and there are no auxiliary particles in English. 1.noun Nouns indicate the names of people or things， they can be further divided into three sub-sorts: proper nouns (e.g. Beijing)， common nouns (desk) and abstract nouns (thought， imagination). In English all the countable nouns have plural forms with the general ending –s(except the irregular forms); while in Chinese the nouns never change their forms. Plural forms in Chinese are often realized by adding numerals before nouns. E.g.許多樹 (many trees)， 三本書(three books)， 兩只山羊(two goats). Problems caused by the differences for Chinese learners can be demonstrated as follows: 1）Tom， will you play outside? There is not enough rooms for you here. 2)More than one foreign language are taught in this school. 3)In order to buy a nice shoes， he went to several shoes stores. 4)Fly spread disease， so we should think of ways to get rid of them. In addition， many nouns in English are identifiable by the fact that they share derivations such as –ness (darkness)， -ty(cruelty)， -ity(purity)，-tion(collection)， -ation(appreciation)， -ship(hardship)，etc.. Noun often serves as subject， object， appositive in English sentences， while noun serves not only as subject， object， appositive in Chinese， but also predicate， attributive as well. 2. adjective Adjectives which describe nouns show the quality of people or things. In English， adjectives have comparative degree and superlative degree， e.g. fast， faster， and fastest. And the two degrees depend on the suffix changes of the words to be realized. While in Chinese， 比/比較/較(comparative degree)，最(superlative degree) is often used in front of the adjectives to show the degrees， for example: 1) 我們能用較少的人或資金把工作做得更好嗎？ Can we do our work better with fewer people and less money? 2)小芳在她們班個子最高。 Xiao Fang is the tallest girl in her class. Besides， many adjectives in English are identifiable by the fact that they share derivations such as –ive (creative， positive， administrative)， -ful (beautiful， plentiful， wonderful)， -al (colonial， economical， commercial)， -ty ( pretty， witty) and so on. 3. adverb Adverbs often modify adjectives， verbs or other adverbs showing such concepts as time， place， degree， manners， etc. The position of the adverb in Chinese sentence and English sentence is different in the following way: 1) in Chinese， time adverb often appears at the beginning of a sentence or after the subject， while time adverb in English often appears at the end of a sentence. For example: 明年， 王老師就從美國回來了。/王老師明年就從美國回來了。 2) indefinite time adverbs like always， often， frequently， usually， follow the subject in both languages. For example: He always gets up late. 他總是起床很晚。 We often go to school together. 我們經(jīng)常一起去上學(xué)。 3）when modifying verbs， most degree adverbs or manner adverbs such as seriously， slowly， hard， carefully…..often follow the verbs or verb phrases in English， while in Chinese， such adverbs often precede the verbs introduced by particle ‘地’ or appear after the particle ‘得’. For example: He works very hard. 他努力地工作/他工作得很努力。 He did his homework very carefully. 他作業(yè)做得很仔細(xì)。 He drank thirstily. 他大口地喝著水。 4) when an adverb modifies an adjective， it appears before the modified adjective in both languages. For example: It is a rather difficult job. 這是一項(xiàng)相當(dāng)難的工作。 5）in English，when an adverb is used as attributive， it often follows the antecedent， while in Chinese， it appears before the antecedent. For example: I met Peter on my way home. 在回家的路上，我碰到了皮得。 The students there enjoy their school life very much. 那兒的學(xué)生非常喜歡學(xué)校生活。 In English the easy way to identify many adverbs is by derivational suffix like –ly， -ward， -wise such as in economically， semantically， thirstily， especially; forward， toward; clockwise， etc.. The differences often cause problems for Chinese learners as follows: a. he runs more fastly than I do， as we all know. B. I hard worked and finally passed the exam successful. C. last Sunday at 10 o’clock we went shopping in the supermarket. D. he very much likes learning english. 4.verbs Semantically， most verbs denote actions and activities. Syntactically， a verb， together with other elements， forms the predicate of a sentence. Verbs in English inflect， while in Chinese， verbs don’t. this difference presents difficulties for Chinese learners as displayed in the following sentences: 1) the water feels cool when I washed my hands this morning. 2) they buyed a new car last week. 3) he said he doesn’t like his job. 4) I call him this morning. Verb variation –”indefinite verbs” including gerund， present particle and past particle has the function of both verb and noun， which is excluded in Chinese and presents difficulties for Chinese learners of English. For example: 1) we finally knew he was an experiencing teacher. 2) looking out of the window， a car accident was seen. 3) revolution means to liberate the productive forces. 4) the teacher came in， following by some students. 5. pronoun A pronoun is often used as a substitute for a previously stated noun called the antecedent. Pronoun can act as subject， object and appositive in both languages. There are 5 types of pronouns in english. 1) personal pronoun: Subject or nominative pronoun: I， he， she， it， we， you， they Object or objective pronoun: me， him， her， it， us， you， them Possessive pronoun: my， his， her， its， our， your， their (adjective pronoun); mine， his， hers， its， ours， yours， theirs (noun possessives) Reflexive pronoun: myself， himself， herself， itself， ourselves， yourselves， themselves. 2) interrogative pronoun: what， who， whose， whom， which 3) demonstrative pronouns: this， that， these， those. 4) relative pronouns: who， whose， whom， which， that 5) indefinite pronoun: something， somebody， no one， one， both， anything， anybody， nothing， everything， none， etc. Chinese pronoun is similar to that of English in classification， but the usage is somewhat different， which often presents difficulties for Chinese learners of English as follows: 1) whom did you say was calling? 你說剛才誰給打電話了？ 2) the secret must remain between you and I. 這個秘密到你和我這里為止。 3) Bill and me were the winners last time. 比爾和我是最后的勝利者。 4) he is as tall as myself. 他跟我一樣高。 5) I have myself’s opinion. 我有自己的想法。 6) In Joy’s novel， he delights in complex puns and in playing with words. 在喬伊的小說中，他喜歡玩復(fù)雜的雙關(guān)游戲和文字游戲。 6.preposition Preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun to some other words in a sentence. Preposition in English includes single ones as with， to， in， on， of， about， between， through; compound prepositions as inside， onto， upon， within， without， throughout and idiomatic prepositions as according to， along with， because of， in front of， on behalf of， with regard to， etc.. And in many fixed collocations， the change of prepositions can mean different things. For example， take after(長得像)， take in(接納)， take off(脫掉)， take on(雇傭，呈現(xiàn))， take over(接管)， take out(拿掉)… and over 90% of the usage of prepositions involves the following nine ones: with， to， from， at， in， by， for and on. Preposition appears constantly in English speech and writing and the usage is complicated. In Chinese， the most commonly used prepositions are: 把，給，讓，叫，在，除，比，從，由，自從，向，往，朝，跟，對，etc.， which are less frequently used than their English counterparts. For example: 1) 我們（在）11點(diǎn)在火車站會面。 We’ll meet at the railway station at 11 o’clock. 2）（在）下午發(fā)生了一場車禍。 A car accident occurred in the afternoon. 3）（在）周日我常待在學(xué)校。 I often stayed at school on Sundays. The differences often cause troubles like: 1)The room was full with smokes after the big fire. 2) the two classrooms are quite different from size. 3) the visitors to Japan will arrive in Beijing Sunday. 4) the teachers will be back after two hours. 5)my father bought a new skirt to me. The other difference is that if a Chinese sentence contains a preposition construction， this structure should be placed before verbs as an adverbial adjunct. For example: 她在宿舍給朋友寫信。（she is writing to her friends at the dormitory.） while in English， preposition constructions are often placed after the main verb， so English learners of Chinese may make such mistakes as: 1)我朋友不學(xué)習(xí)漢語在北京。 2）帕柳卡學(xué)習(xí)漢語和丁云。 7. conjunction Conjunctions are used to connect words， phrases or sentences. The commonly used English conjunctions are as follows: 1) coordinative conjunctions such as and(和）， or（或）， but（但是）， however（然而）， therefore（因此）， as well as（以及）， either…or..（要么。。。要么）， neither…nor…（既不。。也不）， not only…but also（不但。。而且）， etc.. 2）subordinate conjunctions such as if（是否）， whether（是否）， when（在。。。時候）， if（如果）， because（因?yàn)椋��?so that（結(jié)果）， since（由于）， after（在。。。之后）， before（在。。。之前）， etc.. 3)participle conjunctions such as supposing（假設(shè)）， provided（倘若）， concerning（關(guān)于）， considering（鑒于）， which are absent in Chinese. The use of conjunctions between English and Chinese are different to some degree. For example， ‘and’ is often used in English to form a coordinate clause while a quotation mark may be used in Chinese. For example， He likes football and I like it too. The second difference is that some conjunctions such as “因?yàn)�。。。所�?rdquo;， “不但。。。而且”， “如果。。。那么”， are often used together， or omitted in Chinese， while only one of the pair can be used in English， thus interference often occur here. For example， ‘because he is sick， so he is absent from school.’ ‘though there are many difficulties， but we are determined to finish the work on time.’ obviously， one of the conjunctions in the above sentences should be deleted. However， it’s quite appropriate to say: “因?yàn)樯�病了，所以他沒去學(xué)校，”“雖然有很多困難，但是我們決定按時完成工作”in Chinese. The differences caused other troubles for Chinese learners’， esp. about the use of subordinate conjunctions and misuse of other conjunctions. For example: 1) the reason why I burst into tears is because I don’t want to part from my mother. 2)he lay in which the grass was the thickest. 3)be careful， and you’ll fall into the river. 4)I like the color of the hat， I don’t like its shape. 5)he won the first prize in speech contest， he felt very proud.nxC紅軟基地

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